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Neo-Nazis and Skinheads (a perspective on Hate Crime)

 By Jenni Straits, Jeff Brown, & Thomas Gomez

Neo-Nazis: Impact of Racism

A holistic assessment of neo-Nazi racism is very profound as initial racism in the United States was based on the Western Cultural belief that "whites" were superior to others. They defined themselves in large part by their physical similarities. These similarities or traits (example: light pigmentation) translated into their being greater than other cultures such as American Indians and colored people from Africa who possessed different physical traits.

The most noticeable of these physical traits was skin color or the amount of "melanin" (determining factor of oneís pigmentation) that one has. Because the Western Europeans generally had less "melanin," resulting in a lighter skin complexion, they eventually would be referred to as "white." White Supremacy then is historically rooted in our history before the United States was ever an idea. Eventually there would be more people to die than had in any war before or thus far with racism as part of the reason for conflict, in the Civil War. So historical precedent is a giant factor for our dismay with the current movement of white supremacist factions. Secondly there is the quantitative call for alarm as "whites" are still a majority in this Country, contrary to popular belief. Of course only a fraction of the white people represent "supremacists" it is still worthwhile to consider the dynamic of numbers. Even with most of the white culture condemning the supremacists, the huge block of whites in the country makes the neo-nazi bias more intimidating. Finally we consider that variable in societal groups that determines dominance, power. In realist terms power is determined by wealth or capital means of production. It follows that the "whites" are dominant in our society as "whites" control the lionís share of wealth and/or other capital. It is still no more correct for a minority group to be supremacists, but the greater means accessible to the dominant group make their racism more of an immediate threat. This establishes another reason for concern over "supremacist" group activity. In summary the factors of historical precedent, "white" majority, and cultural dominance demand a closer look at the Neo-Nazi movement.

The Myth of Race

At this point it is essential that we espouse our view pertaining to the notion of race. Race is purely conventional. In 1781 Johann Blumenbach it does not exist as many have been led to believe that it does. Sociologist John Macionis defines race as "a category composed of men and women who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society deem socially significant." The operative words in the Macionis definition are "deem socially significant." Certainly there are many physical traits that you and I may have in common but are not grouped together as a race. Take for example fingerprints. People can have loops, whorls, or arches imprinted on their finger tips (go ahead and check yours out). The imprint is a biological trait passed on like skin color, but if you were to tell people that you are part of the whorls race they would think you had went off the deep end. The point is that classifying persons according to skin color or eye shape is no less ridiculous than classifying by fingerprints only society "deems" these traits "socially significant." Classifications such as skin color prevail in part because they are functional, that is one can immediately make a distinction upon seeing a person. The classification is still as arbitrary as hair color, eye color, or fingerprints because it indicates no deep biological division of species (defined as a group that interbreeds, which weíre sure "race" does not preclude). Anthropological experts have also issued joint-statements, that in effect, state, the notion of race is unfounded.

Drawing Lines Between Nazism and the KKK

As society becomes more homogenized in our political philosophy of embracing different ethnic groups we find far fewer groups pronouncing their racism. In turn this prompts a sort of "lumping" together of racist factions. Indeed there are differences between the neo-Nazis and the Ku-Klux-Klan (KKK). Neo-Nazis are more aligned with the theories of Adolph Hitlerís Mein Kampf and revere the policies of the National Socialist German Workersí Party which originated in 1913 and gained power in 1933. The fascist ideology of neo-Nazis differ with that of the KKK which make less of a statement concerning political structure, but which are generally assumed to be capitalist.

The origins of the KKK are different than the Nazis. A detailed discussion of the rise of the KKK is not in order. Our purposes are served by knowing that the first KKK formed following the Civil War in reaction to an altered state drastically changed by the Northern Unionists.

Neo-Nazis and the KKK have these different beginnings but are easily associated with one another now because the subscription to each party means something different today. It stands more for white supremacy and separation; views which neo-Nazis and the KKK share in common. The neo-Nazi hatred deals with Nationalism and diametrical opposition to any other ethnic/"racial" groups, especially Jews. Nazis legitimized their abhorrent discrimination by claiming that race was the reason for a natural separation. This common denominator between neo-Nazis and the KKK has already been proven biologically unsound (see Race). It is also undermined by the fact that both groups classify Jewish people as a race when Judaism happens to be a religion. Both in the instance of the neo-Nazis and the KKK, Christianity is perverted so that religion is used as a rationale for the condemning of the Jewish people (see Religion). As Christianity spawned from Judaism it is unlikely that the two religions should be a cause for conflict and is more likely a scapegoat issue. Finally, there are the racist-skinheads who have similar contentions as neo-Nazis and the KKK as white supremacists, but back their hatred by despising religion in general as a sort of "opium of the masses" (Marx) which restricts social mobility. Many skinhead groups are anarchist (to clear any confusion the Marxist reference may cause).

American Neo-Nazism 

Neo-Nazism has had very little success in the United States. At their peak in 1978 the assortment of neo-Nazi organizations had an aggregate of 1,000-1,200 members. In 1987 it is estimated that they have had no more than 400-500 members. Of these groups the first to emerge in the United States was the National Resistance Party (NRP) in 1949. The NRP was founded by James Madole and existed until his death in 1978. It is a significant group because many of the future neo-Nazis got their start in the group. They gained their greatest recognition in the 1950ís. The group collaborated with the Ku-Klux-Klan (KKK) on certain events.

The American Nazi Party (ANP) got its start in 1959 through the efforts of George Lincoln Rockwell. Publications such as The Stormtrooper and the Rockwell Report helped the group gain notoriety. George Rockwellís neo-Nazi comic book profile also was quickly noticed. He was a tall and assertive, fanatic who was know for his confrontation even at the expense of other neo-Nazis or White Supremacists. The name of the group changed early on to National Socialists White People Party (NSWPP). A dismembered neo-Nazi eventually assassinated Rockwell in 1967 and Matt Koehl became the new leader. In 1982 the NSWPP changed its name to the New Order.

In 1978 the National Socialist Party of America (NSPA) stole the spotlight by holding a rally in Skokie, Illinois a predominantly Jewish town. The NSPAís leader Frank Collins anticipated a civil rights violation. In a surprise ruling the Illinois Supreme Court allowed the march on constitutional grounds. In 1979 the KKK and the Communist Workers Party clashed in a shootout. Two of the KKK members were also NSPA men. Harold Covington became the leader of the NSPA in 1980.

Other neo-nazi organizations such as the America First Committee founded in 1980 and the American White Nationalist Party beginning in 1972, were small, but published quite a bit of racist literature. The Euro-American Alliance (EAA) began in the mid-1970ís. EAA newsletters were still being passed out in 1981. An issue of the EAA publication Talon begins with an article entitled "Constructive Hatred":

When you see a White woman in the company of a non-White man, which one should you hate? The non-white male is carrying out his raceís imperative: he is debauching a willing victim. What do you do when you come across a white mother coddling a child who is a race alien? Hate her and shun her. (George and Wilcox, 1996, p.336)

If the insecurity of a person was ever so pronounced and the reaction as a result of that insecurity so misguided, we are yet to see it.

The National Alliance (NA) came up in 1974. Dr. William Pierce, a former physics professor at the University of Oregon, created NA. More than a decade later the in1985 the National Democratic Front took shape. This splinter group mostly consists of a mailing group. Many of the current neo-Nazi groups are organized around mailers because of the increased difficulty of gaining a successful turnout at meetings or other traditional events.

The National Socialist League/World Service is a homophile Nazi group established in 1974. Being the subject of ridicule from other groups it is interesting to note that this group is still around distributing movies and organized around a mail-list.

Joseph Tomassi founded the National Socialist Liberation Front (NSLF) in 1969. The California based group is known for it aggressive and violent tactics. Tomassi killed during a dispute with the NSWPP. Karl Hand, one of David Dukes previous Grand Dragons of the KKK became leader in 1981. The group is noted as having limited success recruiting members throughout the prison system. In 1985 the NSLF folded.

Other splinter groups include the National Socialist Movement of the late 1970ís and National Socialists Vanguard (NSV). Established in 1983 with two members in it and a mailing list out of Salinas, California the group remains preserved in its' original two member configuration. The National Socialist White American Party is a similar faction operating of the Pacific Palisades in California.

Gary Rex Lauck founded the National Socialist German Workers Party/Overseas Organization. Lauck goes by his pseudonym of Gerhard. Lauck was virtually exiled from West Germany for his neo-Nazi activity. He now operates his mail letter organization from a post office box in Lincoln, Nebraska.

The Rise of Militia Type-White Supremacy

Probably the most dangerous of recent (last decade) militant groups is the Aryan Nations. Networking throughout the country the group had between 150 and 200 avowed members and approximately 2,000 subscribers to the mailing list during the 1980ís. Richard Butler initially headed the Aryan Nations in 1970ís as a group aligned with in beliefs with Butlers "Church of Jesus Christ-Christian" in Northern Idaho. The church is a based on a classic 19^th century identity doctrine. It holds that white Anglo Saxons were one of the 10 lost tribes of Israel, and that England and America, especially the Pacific Northwest, are the promise land referred to in the bible. Identity doctrines contend that Jesus was white, a descendant of the Germanic and Scandinavian peoples. The Aryan Nations also have a prison ministry, which acts as a prime opportunity for the expansion of racism. Butler is over seventy now and in poor health which bring question about the future of the Aryan Nation.

Former Grand Dragon of the United Klan of Americaís Michigan Realm Robert Miles established the Mountain Church in 1971. The religious organization was linked to other white supremacist groups, but differed from fundamental Christian Identity groups. Miles described his philosophy more in tune with the dualistic Manicheanism. The core of this doctrine is a division between good and evil. Mountain Church following dissipated in the early 1990ís.

Many members from the Aryan Nations were part of Robert Matthew's ultra-conservative racist organization known as The Order and the Silent Brotherhood. The emergence of the groups in 1983 would lead to a culmination of tragic events. By the end of 1984 violent crimes to gain money for their cause led to The Orderís apprehension by the FBI leaving Matthews dead after a shootout. In hindsight the groups pattern of events resembled the fictional novel titled "The Turner Diaries" in which a group of whites face off with the government in a civil war. The Order was responsible for deaths of Jewish talk show host Alan Berg and their own member Walter West. Investigation of the Orderís criminal campaign was said to have required "one-quarter of the manpower resources of the FBI." (George and Wilcox, 1996, p.343)

The Posse Comitatus is a group that was formed by Henry Beach and William Gale around the belief that the only legitimate government is at the county, and local levels. Members waive the obligation to pay federal income taxes. Not totally subscribing to neo-Nazism the Posse nevertheless has expressed Jewish conspiracy theories of the Zionist Occupational Government and the like.

Contemporary Objectiveshttp://www.csustan.edu.skinheads/

As mentioned earlier the political climate in the United States over all has limited the numbers of neo-Nazi and white supremacists in general. Racism is shunned by most of society today partly because of the ethnic and "racial" diversity within our country. Hate Crimes statutes have been introduced unilaterally to combat the problem of racism. Overall the rate of crime in general has been on the decline as has hate crimes. Still the number of violent hate crimes has slightly risen (as violent crimes have in general). With characters such as David Duke, one time leader within the Knights of the KKK, National Association for the Advancement of White People leader, and a Populist Party politician making head way there is room for healthy suspicion. Duke won a seat in the Louisiana House of Representatives in 1989 and then a third of the vote in the State Senate race. One wonders how such an extreme bigot could be backed in society today. An even more concerning thought is how easy it would be for somebody like Duke to persuade an insecure young person searching for identity. This leads us to a threatening aspect of the White Supremacist/neo-Nazi movement: The growth of Racist Skinheads.

Much of the skinhead growth is based on the appeal for the subculture associated with skinheads. Skinhead subculture defined crudely by music, violence, and beer. Skinheads introduce "hate crimes" problems when racist ideologies are involved (not a necessarily characteristic of all skins). Although skins that appeared in East Germany in 1998 were by and large anti-Semitic as have been the skins in Hungary, and the Soviet Union, the skins in the United States have been directed to more racist/segregationist ideas by persons such as Tom Metzger.

A shrewd militaristic man Metzger involvement with the far right began with the John Birch Society. He left the John Birch society as his views were deemed to radical. Soon Metzger joined the KKK and befriended David Duke. In 1978 Metzger grew disenchanted with Duke and founded his own Californian chapter of the Knights of the KKK. Metzger's KKK gained notoriety in 1979 when violence broke out in Oceanside California. Around this same time he assembled Border Watch a group with Marines who purpose to find illegal aliens. In 1980 Metzger was a surprise winner in the California Democratic Congressional Primary in the stateís forty-third district. Metzger changed his Californian Knights of the KKK to White American Political Association and promoted paramilitary activity aligned with the themes in The White Mans Bible and The Turner Diaries. During the Reagan era a decline in the White Supremacist movement occurred. There was a need for radical extremism among the remaining activists and during the same time Metzger heard opportunity knock.

The rise of Oi and punk music, and hard-core bands promoting a violent lifestyle gave Metzger the chance to preach a racist philosophy to the undirected Reagan youth. The plan of attack or the "third position" as Metzger refers to it, was the launch of a subculture with British Skinhead values, style, and music but with a violently separatist mentality. He called the new branch the White Aryan Resistance or WAR. The "third position" emphasizes race, ecology and violence to near exclusion of economics, religion, and public policy. Media coverage on the Oprah and Geraldo talk shows escalated the interests of youth attracting new recruits for WAR. The Anti-Defamation League estimated that approximately there were approximately 3,000 skinheads in 1989 (noting that "baldies, "two-tones", and "traditionals" may not be racist). Frequent violent incidents have been linked to the skinheads. On November 13, 1988 in Portland, Oregon the killing of Mulgeta Seraw (Ethiopian) was linked to skins and also to Tom and his boy representative John Metzger. As the State Court ruled against the Metzgers according to a doctrine of "vicarious liability." Legal feeís for attorneys and fines (in the millions) have left the WAR operation depleted.

American Skins: A Misguided Movement

Skinheads are a difficult group to classify because theyíre a great deal of fragmentation within the subculture. Different that average neo-Nazi groups who often are card-carrying members of a certain organization, skinheads are not so well defined. Often they are depicted as physically fit young white men dressed in blue jeans, white power T-shirts, red suspenders, and Doc Martens, a heavy steel-toed boot of British make. They are said to range in age from about thirteen to twenty-five, and are thought to be aligned with a brand of rock and roll called speed metal, thrash metal, and/or death metal. Many skinheads themselves cite racism as the primary reason for their violent behavior.

In 1984, twenty-five year old Clark Reid Marell started what is considered to be the first neo-Nazi skinhead gang in the United States-Chicagoís Romantic Violence. Most of the skinheads come from broken families and decide to take out their rage on other people. The FBI claims that "Skinheads in and of themselves are not necessarily organized, nor do they share any common beliefs." A group called the Teddy Boys was introduced in the 1950ís they symbolized rock and roll and revolt against everyone. They listened to Elvis Presley and Little Richard.

Then black immigrants came from Jamaica and other West Indian men came to London. A few small groups of immigrants in the ghettos West London presently became associated with racketeering and prostitution enterprises, and this attracted the hostility of the Teddy Boys. In the spring of 1985 the Teds became involved in numerous unprovoked attacks on young Afro-Caribbean men in the ghettos of West London. Each of these outbreaks involved large gangs of white males targeting isolated black families and individuals. The se events were important because they mark the introduction of racial violence as a postwar subcultural style among British youth. The original skinheads got their ideas from a group of Jamaican immigrants known as the rude boys. More than any other subculture it seemed to offer them a solution to the problems they were experiencing in their own working class neighborhoods. Therefore, the rude boy style was viewed by certain working class white youth as functional and coherent answer to difficulties associated with growing up under harsh economic conditions. The skinheads were not xenophobic or homophobic. Nor did they believe in Nazism. All that would come later. Skinheads began to polarize themselves against hippies. Mostly it was an issue over hair. Hippies had long hair to represent love and eroticism. The skinheads had short hair to send a message to the hippies: "Fuck you! Iíll do as I please." Skinheads liked short hair because it could not be grabbed in a street fight, and the early skinheads increasingly preferred fighting to anything else.

Then the art of slam dancing came into play and the skinheads and the hippies would end up fighting about that. Later in the mid-1970ís Scotland Yard marked the skinheads and their numbers were depleted. Then the punk era came along with the Sex Pistols. Unlike the skinheads, punk violence was more abstractly expressed. While skinheads were most likely to attack specific targets like hippies, Pakistanis, Asians, and homosexualsí punks were likely to attack anyone including each other and themselves. "Punk" was made to offend people and they had crazy hairdos and mutilated their faces and such.

During this punk period the swastika was adopted as a new punk symbol, although the punks themselves did not adopt the ideology of Nazism denoted by the swastika. It was really used just to shock people.

The emergence of the skinheads as an international youth subculture is largely attributable to the musical talents and political action (as associated with Tom Metzger) of Ian Stuart Danaldson. During the time when the swastika became widely used in punk movement he and his friends began to believe in a full-throttled neo-Nazi ideology. They were anti-immigration, anti-Communist, ant-Semitic, and anti-gay.

Skinheads are different than regular gangs because they are driven racially. For skinheads, violence id their signature trademark because violence is part of subultural style. Instead of turf battles racist skinheads use violence for the explicit purpose of promoting political change.
 
 
 
 

Works Cited

Ezekiel, R. (1995) . Tom Metzger: White Aryan Resistance. In The Racist Mind, New York: Viking, pp. 69-92.

George, J. & Wilcox, L. (1996). Assorted Neo-Nazis. In American Extremists, Amherst, NY: Prometheus: 323-353.

Hamm, M. (1993). From Haight-Ashbury to Plymouth Rock: The rise of the American Neo-Nazi Skinheads. In American Skinheads, Westport, Ct: Praeger.

 Keene-Osborn, "Didn't Seem Like Much", Newsweek, Dec. 1, 1997. 37-38.

Marquand, "Hate Groups Market to the Mainstream", The Christian Science Monitor, August 19, 1992, p. 28-29.

Samuels, "God Save the Queen. God Save Us All", Newsweek, June 24, 1996, 86-89.Ridgeway, J. (1990). Blood in the Face, New York: Thunder's Mouth Press